Authors: Diana Reckien; Rachel Keeton; Robbin-Jan van Duijne
Across East Africa, pastoralism is a deeply embedded cultural practice and livelihood. Climate change and shifting environmental conditions such as prolonged drought have increasingly forced pastoralist communities in arid or semi-arid regions to abandon their traditional livelihoods, despite profound social and psychological ties to this practice. This article addresses the material and subjective well-being of former pastoralists in Marsabit Town, northern Kenya. Located in Marsabit County, Marsabit Town is the largest settlement in this county, and primary data collection took place here in 2017. Marsabit County borders Ethiopia to the north, and is one of Kenya’s driest counties. It is characterized by relatively difficult conditions, including remote communities connected by poor infrastructure, and limited access to public services.
Informed by these challenges, our study poses two critical research questions: First, what patterns of material asset accumulation can be observed among ex-pastoralist households, and how can these patterns be explained? Second, are there noticeable differences in subjective well-being outcomes among social groups after quitting pastoralism, and what factors contribute to these variations?
By interrogating two dominant groups of former pastoralists, (already) settled households and (recent) migrant households, we also assess the notion of migration-as-adaptation that a growing body of literature on climate migration has recently zeroed in on. Our study delves into the material and subjective well-being of migrants, exploring migration successes and failures, specifically focusing on former pastoralists. We do so by deploying a survey to solicit responses from 285 households that were once engaged in pastoralism but abandoned this livelihood due to drought.
Understanding Well-Being Outcomes
We examine self-reported satisfaction levels before and after the livelihood transition between two groups: the settled group and migrant group. The settled group shows a clear improvement in well-being. This suggests that settled households have generally experienced better well-being outcomes after transitioning from pastoralism. For migrant households, the situation is more complex and indicates a significant polarization in well-being outcomes among migrants (some with a lot lower and some with higher well-being after leaving pastoralism). Factors such as complete loss of livestock, informal housing, and failure to secure agricultural work significantly increase the risk of extreme dissatisfaction among migrants. This finding underscores the inequalities faced by migrant households in securing new livelihoods. Our study also highlights the intricate link between material conditions and subjective well-being. Livestock ownership and housing quality emerged as key predictors of subjective well-being, emphasizing that these material conditions heavily influence personal perceptions of well-being among the study respondents.
Patterns of Material Asset Accumulation
Evaluating material well-being hinges significantly on household asset ownership. Our study’s data highlights the stark disparities between settled and migrant households in Marsabit Town. Settled households consistently surpass migrants in every asset category, from television and smartphone ownership to private water supply and motorbikes.
One enduring element of household assets is livestock ownership. While livestock is no longer the primary income source for many former pastoralists, it remains part of a diversified livelihood portfolio for some. This difference indicates a stronger detachment from pastoralist livelihoods among migrants, possibly due to the need to sell livestock to cover migration-related expenses. As we demonstrate, the inability to retain livestock is strongly associated with poor subjective well-being post-transition, which may be related to deep cultural ties to pastoralist practices.
Subjective Well-Being Outcomes
To measure subjective well-being, we collected information on the level of satisfaction with respondents’ “quality of life,” before and after quitting pastoralism. We then transformed subjective well-being outcomes into an ordinal variable, "Change in subjective well-being," and conducted an ordinal logistic regression model to analyze these differences. This model showed that migrant households are nearly half as likely as settled households to experience an improvement in well-being following the livelihood change, while settled households are about twice as likely to see an upward trend.
Several factors explain the observed disparities:
- Nature of New Livelihoods: Settled households are more likely to transition into agricultural work (40%) compared to migrants (15%). Agriculture provides more stable income and aligns closely with traditional pastoral lifestyles, contributing to higher well-being.
- Casual Labor Prevalence: A significant proportion of migrants (72%) engage in casual labor, compared to 47% of settled households. Casual labor, encompassing low-paying and insecure jobs, undermines overall well-being.
- Livestock Ownership: Migrant households are less likely to retain livestock, a key predictor of well-being. Households without livestock post-transition are 23 times more likely to report extreme dissatisfaction.
- Dwelling Quality: Quality of housing is another significant predictor. Former pastoralists in informal housing are 12 times more likely to report dissatisfaction compared to those in formal structures.
Persistence of Well-Being Disparities
An important question is whether these well-being disparities persist over time. Our data suggests that earlier migrant cohorts (1991-1995 and 1996-2000) continue to report lower well-being levels, indicating that negative impacts remain persistent. Conversely, later migrant cohorts (2006-2010) report increased well-being levels, suggesting that more recent migrants might be adapting better over time.
Conclusion
Our findings reveal complex patterns of material and subjective well-being among ex-pastoralist households in Marsabit Town. While settled households generally experience better outcomes, migrant households face significant challenges. Factors such as new livelihood types, livestock retention, and housing quality play crucial roles in shaping these outcomes. Understanding these dynamics is essential for developing policies and interventions that can support former pastoralists in improving their well-being and adapting to new livelihoods in the face of climate change.
The full study here: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11111-024-00456-5
